THE  FACE OF EVIL : The Muslim Beard Representation in Hollywood Movies in Post 9/11 Attacks

فاطمة الزهراء مشري

المؤلفون

فاطمة الزهراء مشري Department of letters and English Language University of Frères Mentouri Constantine 1, Constantine, Algeria

الكلمات المفتاحية:

Orientalism، Hollywood movies، post 9/11 attacks، the war on terror، Muslim men’s beard

الملخص

Islam has been one of the highly misunderstood religions in the world. Many non-Muslim societies have never welcomed Islam. To Many Americans, the geographical imaginings of Arabs and Muslims are grounded on perceptions inherited from the Classical Orientalism that was established in Europe as a system of knowledge during the 18th and 19th centuries. Since the end of the Second World War, Americans have ornamented the early European prejudicial representation of Arabs and Muslims through constructing and disseminating essentialized and derogatory perceptions of this distinctive social group as inferior, backward, and dangerous ‘Other’. Ever since the 9/11 attacks and the escalation of the war on terror, images that successfully linked the Muslim bodily and religious practices with violence and terror gained great ascendancy in American mainstream media, popular culture, and political rhetoric. Focusing on the scale of the Muslim body, the present article probes the American motion picture industry (mainly Hollywood) representation of Muslim beard as a symbol of difference and danger in movies released in the post 9/11 attacks. Specifically, it examines beards as a bodily practice that supplies information about Muslims and as a key element used to breathe life into the reel bad Arab character in Hollywood movies. By focusing on Hollywood movies representations of bearded Muslim men, the article reveals how men’s beards have been embedded in the discourse of fear, danger, and terror.

التنزيلات

بيانات التنزيل غير متوفرة بعد.

المراجع

. Al Djazairi, Salah Eddine. The Myth of Muslim Barbarism and its Aim. Bayt Al-Hikma Press, n.d. PDF file.

. Al Makki, Abu Talib. "The Beard." Muslim World 68.2 (1978): 100-118. PDF file.

. Alsultany, Evelyn. Arabs and Muslims in the Media race and representation after 9/11. New York : Newyork University Press, 2012. PDF file.

. Andreou, Alex. "How Growing a Beard made me 'a terrorist'." The Guardian (2013). Web. 15 November 2018.

<https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/03/day-i-became-a-terrorist>

. BIBLIOGRAPHY l 1036 Behdad, Ali and Juliet A. Williams. 2012. THE STATE OF ‘IN-BETWEEN’ IN CONTEMPORARY IRANIAN ART. 01 June 2017. <http://www.entekhabi.org/Texts/Neo_Orientalism_Today.htm>.

. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. PDF file.

. Brah, Avtar. "Articulations Across Diaspora, Law and Literature." Diaspora, Law and Literature. Ed. Klaus and Carpi, Daniela Stierstorfer. Vol. 12. Library of Congress, 2017. 273- 292. Google Books. Web. 05 November 2017.

. Delaney, Carol. "Untangling the Meaning of Hair in Turkish Society." Anthropological Quarterly 67.4 (1994): 159-172. PDF file.

. De Sondy, Amanullah. "The Relationship Between Muslim Men and their Beards is a tangled one." The Guardian (2016). Web. 26 December 2017.

<https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jan/28/muslim-men-beards-facial-hair-islam>

. El-Ferra, Narmeen. "ARABS AND THE MEDIA." Journal of Media Psychology 1.2 (1996). PDF file.

. Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? Third Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 20 September 2016.

. Fahd, Cherine. "The Assumptions People Make About Dark Bearded Men." The Sydney Morning Herald (n.d.). Web. 10 December 2017.

<http://www.smh.com.au/comment/the-assumptions-people-make-about-dark-bearded-men-20170405-gveoy4.html>

. Firth, Raymond. Symbols: Public and Private. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1973. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 16 March 2017.

. Gaffney, Patrick. Shaykh, Khutba and Masjid: the Role of the Local Islamic Preacher in Upper Egypt. PhD Dissertation. University of Chicago, 1982. PDF file.

. Gerges, Fawaz A. «Islam and Muslims in the Mind of America: Infleunces on the Making of US Policy.» Journal of Palestine Studies 26.2 (Winter1997): 68-80. PDF file.

. Gole, Nilufer. "The Voluntary Adobtion of Islamic Stigma Symbols." Sicial Research 70.3 (2003): 809-828. PDF file.

. Gowing, Thomas. The Philosophy of Beards: a Lecture: Physiological, Artistic and Historical . n.d. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 13 December 2017.

. Hall, Stuart and Gieben, Bram, ed. Formation of Modernity. Great Britain: Open University, 1992. PDF file.

. Halliday, Fred. Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris, 1999. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 20 Mai 2017.

. Hourani, Albert. Europe and the Middle East. California: University of California Press, 1980. Google Books. Web. 20 April 2017.

. BIBLIOGRAPHY l 1036 Huntington, Samuel. "Clash of Civilization?" Foreign Affairs (1993): 22-49. PDF file.

. Kadioğlu, Ayşe. "The Paradox of Turkish Nationalism and the Construction of Official Identity." Middle Eastern Studies 32.2 (1996): 177-193. PDF file.

. Khleif, Bud. "Distortion of "Islam" and "Muslims" in American Academic Discourse: Some Observations on The Sociology of Vested Enmity." In Cultural Diversity and The US Media. Ed. Kamalipour.Y and Carilli.T. New York: State University of New York Press, 1998. 279. Google Books. Web. 20 March 2015.

. Leach, E.R. "Magical Hair." Journal of the Royal Anthropological institute 88 (n.d.): 147-164. PDF file.

. Lewis, Bernard. "The Roots of Muslim Rage." Atlantic Monthly 266.3 (1990): 47-60. PDF file.

. Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and The Middle East since 1945. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 20 November 2016.

. Lockman, Zachary. Contending Visions of the Middle East: the History and Politics of Orientalim. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. PDF file.

. Mandel, Daniel. "Muslims On The Silver Screen." The Middle East Quarterly 8.2 (2001). Web. 15 September 2016.

< HYPERLINK "https://www.meforum.org/articles/other/muslims-on-the-silver-screen

" https://www.meforum.org/articles/other/muslims-on-the-silver-screen >

. Marrison, James. "Arabs Not The First To Be Blown By The Movie." Afterimage 31.5 (2004). PDF file.

. Michalak, Laurence. "Cruel and Unusual: Negative Images of Arabs in Popular American Culture." American Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee 3.15 (1988). PDF file.

. Najeeb, Faiq. "Beards Are Not Just For Terrorists." The Express Tribune (2011). Web. 21 December 2017.

<https://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/4138/beards-are-not-just-for-terrorists/>

. Oldstone-Moore, Christopher. Of Beards and Men: The Revealing History of Facial Hair. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2016. Google Books. Web. 17 December 2017.

. Peterkin, Allan. One Thousand Beards: A Cultural History of Facial Hair. Vancauver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 2001. Google Books. Web. 06 December 2017.

. Pipes, Daniel. "Understanding Islam in Politics." Pipes, Daniel. In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power. fifth. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009. 3- 25. Google Books. Web. 24 November 2017.

. Said, Edward W. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How we See the Rest of the World. New York: Vintage Books, 1997. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 20 November 2016.

. —. Orientalism: Western conceptions of the Orient. London Penguin, 1978. PDF file.

. Sardar, Ziauddin. Concepts in the Social Sciences Orientalism. Buckingham Pheladelphia: Open University Press , 1999. PDF file.

. Semmerling, Tim Jon. Evil Arabs in American Popular Film: Orientalist Fear. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006. Google Books. Web. 20 November 2017.

. Shaheen, Jack. Guilty: Hollywood's Verdict on Arabs After 9/11. Northhampton Massachusetts : Olive Branch Press, 2008. Google Books. Web. 10 October 2017.

. —. "Hollywood's Muslim Arab." The Muslim World (2000): 22-42. PDF file.

. —. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Northhampton, Massachusetts : Olive Branch Press, 2001. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 01 November 2017.

. —. "The Hollywood Arab: 1984-1986" Journal of Popular Film and Television (1987): 148. PDF file.

. —. The TV Arab. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green state University Press, 1984. PDF file.

. Stone, Rebecca. "Reverce Imagery: Middle Eastern Theme in Hollywood." In Images Enchantment: Visual and Performing Arts of the Middle East. Ed. Sherifa Zuhur. Cairo: The American University in Ciaro Press, 1998. 247-263. Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music and Way back Machine. Web. 01 December 2017.

. Suleiman, Michael. «Islam, Muslims and Arabs in America: The Other of The Other of The Other...» Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 19.1 (1999): 33-47. PDF file.

. Turner, Bryan S. Orientalism, Postmodernism, and Globalism. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. Google Books. Web. 10 June 2015.

. Vitkus, Daniel J. "Early Modern Orientalism: Representations of Islam in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Europe." Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Perception of Other. Ed. David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto. New York: St Martin's Press, 1999. PDF file.